At A Glance a very personal take on the history of the Church in England.

IN THE BEGINNING

It all began 2000 years ago.  A man called Jesus Christ lived in a remote Roman outpost called Palestine. We call him a man, but Christians believe that this man was God, assuming human form. He was both fully human, whilst also being fully divine: God come amongst us; God freely offering Himself to us, in love.

The life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ has had a profound effect upon the history of the world - we even date our years from him. He told his followers that if they believed in Him, they would be granted direct access to Almighty God Himself. Through Christ, the dividing wall between man and God has been bridged. Because of his death on the cross, we are granted forgiveness for our wrong doings. We can never earn a passage to heaven: we can only receive it as a free gift from God. We look to Jesus as our deliverer from all that is evil, and also as our Lord.

Jesus instructed his followers to share their faith with others in order that they too, may believe. They did this with remarkable effect. They spread out over the entire Mediterranean world and beyond, explaining to all who would listen the full significance of his life.

For 2000 years, there has been an unbroken chain of believers - people who have trusted in Jesus Christ as their Lord, and who have been faithful to his commands. We, in turn, are called to continue that chain. We are called to live as Christ's disciples, and to draw other people to Him.

Faith is a very personal decision. For many centuries, Christianity has been the established, or accepted religion of our nation. And yet, living in a ‘Christian country’ does not make any individual a Christian. That can only occur when we each make our own personal decision – to believe in God and confess with our own lips that Jesus Christ is the way to God.

So how did we get from there to here? How did this Christian faith reach the kingdom of Britain? Who were the characters involved in this story? The following pages offers a brief glimpse into the story of the Church in England, and its relationship with our nation.

AT A GLANCE                                                                     ROMAN BRITAIN

No one knows who the first Christian in Britain may have been, but there is evidence of faith in Roman Britain. As soon as the Christian faith reached the city of Rome, it spread outwards, across the entire empire, following well-established communication routes. Even though there were periods of severe persecution for Christians, the faith continued to expand. There is even a tradition that Joseph of Arimathea visited Glastonbury and brought the faith with him. Whilst this tradition may be wishful thinking, it is certain that Christianity was first brought to England by the Roman colonists. Among the earliest believers in Britain was Alban, a Roman soldier, who was martyred for his faith.

Alban was stationed in Verulamium (later to become St. Albans), in the days when Christianity was still an illegal sect. Alban offered shelter to an elderly priest who was being sought by the authorities for execution. After long discussions with the priest, Alban himself was converted and baptized. He exchanged clothes with the priest and so was arrested in his stead. Upon discovering his identity, his Commanding Officer pleaded with him to renounce his newfound faith. But he refused and paid the penalty. He was beheaded. He is the first recorded Christian martyr in England.

After the adoption of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine, in AD312, Christianity rapidly became the established faith of the Roman Empire, and there is evidence of Christians in England. A church has been found in the Roman town of Silchester, and Christian symbols in mosaics at Frampton and Hinton St. Mary's, in Dorset. There is a chapel in the Roman villa at Lullingstone in northern Kent, and a Chi-Rho symbol - Greek letters which represent the name of Christ - have been found at Chedworth Roman villa in Gloucestershire. An ancient Christian acrostic was found in the Roman remains of Cirencester. We also know that British bishops (London, York and Lincoln are mentioned) were present at religious Councils at Arles in 314 and Ariminum in 359.

However, there is little evidence of what happened to Christianity once the Roman legions withdrew. Undoubtedly, some Christianity remained amongst the native British, but the faith was almost wiped out by the invading heathens: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. For evidence of Christianity during these ‘Dark Ages’ we must look to Britain's Celtic fringe - Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland.  Christianity also survived in Ireland, partly due to the influence of St. Patrick, who is credited with taking Christianity to Ireland in the 5th century, and because trade routes between Ireland and northern France were a conduit for Christian teaching. Ireland became a centre for the Celtic church.

AT A GLANCE                                                         SAXON ENGLAND

The arrival of Augustine in Kent is a romantic story:  Pope Gregory saw some blond-haired slave boys for sale in Rome, asked who they were, mistook the name “Angle” for angel, and determined to send a mission to convert these angels. In AD597 he dispatched an unwilling Augustine to Britain, who converted the kingdom of Kent to Christianity, becoming the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

This story is based on fact, but the conversion of England was not quite so straightforward. St. Augustine, along with a group of monks, was the first missionary from the Roman church to come to England, but there had been Christians in Britain since the days of Roman occupation. The invading Angles and Saxons had wiped out most of the Christians, but there were probably pockets of Christianity especially in the areas that had not been penetrated by the invaders.

This early church - the Celtic church – had grown remote from the Roman church after more than a century of isolation and was organised quite differently. It was based upon a monastic pattern, in the tradition of the hermit monks of Egypt, rather than the more organised and centralised church system of Rome. By the 7thcentury this Celtic Church was beginning to grow in strength. Columba (who died in AD597 – the same year that Augustine landed in Kent), was an Irish missionary who crossed the Irish Sea and established an abbey on the island of Iona, in SW Scotland, which provided a base for a new wave of evangelism across northern Britain.      

As Augustine's monks moved north and west, they encountered these Celtic Christians moving south. To us today, the differences between these early Christians may seem absurdly insignificant. For example, Celtic and Roman monks had a different hairstyle, and calculated the date of Easter by different methods, normally with different results. But these differences represented two completely contrasting traditions of church order. The Roman church was centrally organised and hierarchically structured, whilst the Celtic church was more of a federal arrangement, with monasteries acting as mission resource centres for the surrounding area. The two groups needed to resolve their differences.

According to the Venerable Bede, whose work remains the standard source for this period, King Ethelbert of Kent was ready to become a Christian in AD597, when Augustine arrived in his kingdom. The king already had a Christian wife from France. From these Kentish beginnings, Augustine sent missionaries to Essex and East Anglia. Later in AD625, Paulinus headed a second wave of Roman missionaries to Britain, and accompanied Princess Aethelburga, King Ethelbert's daughter, to York, when she married King Edwin of Northumbria. Edwin converted to Christianity and was baptised on the site of York Minster in AD627. This advance for Christianity was short lived. Edwin was defeated in battle by the pagan king of Mercia, Penda, and his successor in Northumbria, King Oswald, although a Christian, did not look south for support, but north, to the Celtic church: he sent for monks from the Isle of Iona, in Western Scotland, and Celtic monks, under the leadership of Aidan, travelled south and established a base on the island of Lindisfarne, (Holy Island).

For three decades, the Celtic church spread southwards, and many of the great names of early Christian England, such as Chad, Cedd, Cuthbert and Wilfrid date from this period. At the same time, there was increasing contact with the Roman church as it advanced northwards. As the Saxon tribes accepted the Christian faith, it became evident that some sort of resolution to the differences between the Celtic and Roman practices was needed. The inevitable meeting was held in Whitby Abbey in AD664.

THE SYNOD OF WHITBY

There were tensions at the court of King Oswy of Northumbria. He was a Christian monarch (a younger brother of King Oswald), but he had married a Kentish princess. Consequently, King and Queen adhered to the different strands of English Christianity, resulting in them celebrating Easter Sunday on different Sundays! Something had to be done about this, and Oswy brought the Celtic and Roman groups together at Whitby Abbey in AD664. Speaking for the Celtic church was Colman, Bishop of Lindisfarne; speaking for the Roman party was Wilfrid, Abbot of Ripon – also a Northumbrian, but who had travelled extensively and was well-versed in Roman practice. 

Colman proved to be no match in debate with Wilfrid, and the Roman party won the day. Roman practices were adopted, and the Celtic church was slowly eclipsed, resulting in the dominance of the Roman Church in England right up until the Reformation in the reign of Henry VIII.

CHRISTIANITY IN WESSEX

Christian origins in the Kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex, which broadly speaking comprises of the counties of Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, and most of Gloucestershire, Somerset and Devon), are not well documented.

What is known is that Birinus was sent by the pope in AD635, to find new areas of Britain in which to preach the gospel.  He had intended to travel to Mercia, a great pagan stronghold in the Midlands, but upon finding no Christianity in Wessex, he remained there for the rest of his life.

The king of Wessex, Cynigils, was father-in-law of King Oswald of Northumbria, one of the early Christian kings, and perhaps that fact assisted Birinus to become accepted at court and given freedom to preach. 

In 635, Cynigils and members of his family were baptised, and Birinus was given the town of Dorchester-on-Thames to establish an Episcopal city. He remained Bishop of Dorchester until his death in 650, through the reigns of three kings, and an invasion by King Penda of Mercia. We have few other details of Birinus' achievements, but he left behind a thriving Christian community in Dorchester, and towards the end of his life he dedicated a church in Winchester, which was soon to become the ecclesiastical centre of Wessex. 

Within 10 years of Birinus death, Bishop Wini became the first bishop of Winchester.  The huge diocese was divided in 705, with a new diocese serving western Wessex based upon Sherbourne.

BEWARE OF THE VIKINGS

Following the Synod of Whitby, the Saxon kingdoms of England slowly began to adopt Christianity. Mercia accepted the faith after the death of Penda in AD655. Chad, a Northumbrian who was educated at Lindisfarne, was sent to Mercia, and founded a new church at Lichfield in AD669. Strangely, the last areas of England to embrace Christianity were on the south coast – Sussex and the Isle of Wight.

But the young faith soon faced another serious threat: the arrival of the Vikings. The 8th century Vikings raids, which began in northern Britain, led to their colonisation of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia, until finally only Wessex remained of the Saxon kingdoms. There was serious danger of total Viking domination of England, until, in AD878, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex began the fight back, which even saw the conversion to Christianity of the Viking leader, Guthrum. By the time of Alfred’s grandson, Athelstan, England had been united into a single country, with a Christian ruler. The Vikings had not quite finished – further Viking raids culminated in Danish rule from 1016 when Cnut (Canute) seized the throne. But by the 11th century, although the Vikings threatened the political status quo, they did not affect the Christian situation in England. Cnut was a recognised monarch within Christendom and indeed, he was buried in Winchester Cathedral. Cnut was succeeded by his son, before the throne reverted to the House of Wessex, for its last great flowering under Edward the Confessor.

As his title suggests, Edward is remembered as a pious monarch, who promoted the Christian faith. The great building project of his reign was Westminster Abbey, the first Norman Romanesque church to be built in England.

Edward was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Harold II, whose reign was very short-lived and culminated in the best known date in English history….  

AT A GLANCE                                              THE ELEVENTH CENTURY

In the year 1066 occurred the other memorable date in English History, viz.  William the Conqueror, Ten Sixty-six. This is also called the battle of Hastings, and was when William I (1066) conquered England at the Battle of Senlac (Ten Sixty-six).     (from 1066 AND ALL THAT: Sellar and Yeatman)

The coming of the Normans may have had a profound effect upon the political history of Britain, but it also marks a significant milestone in the story of the English Church. 

Under the Saxons, Christianity had spread across England. The parish system was established, churches were built, and many monasteries and convents were founded. Edward the Confessor (1042-66) was a devout man, responsible for the building of Westminster Abbey. But with the arrival of the Normans, the Church entered a new era. William I (the Conqueror 1066 - 1087) rapidly replaced the Saxon bishops with his own, Norman appointments, and a new age of ecclesiastical building began:  Saxon Churches and Minsters, for the most part built of wood, were replaced by larger, stone buildings.

Spiritually, the eleventh century marks a period of great reform. Pope Gregory VII sought to bring moral revival to the church.  In 1070, Lanfranc, a supporter of his reforms was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.

William I was a supporter of the Church, and never questioned the spiritual authority of the Pope, even if his politics are noted for his brutal suppression of opposition. But his son, William II (1087 – 1100), had little time for religion, presided over a very liberal court, and was reluctant to fill posts in the Church, although he did finally appoint Anselm as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093.

Anselm is noted as the outstanding Christian philosopher and theologian of the eleventh century. He was a great author and proponent of faith, expressed in his most famous quote: “For I do not seek to understand in order that I may believe, but I believe in order to understand.”

AT A GLANCE                                             THE TWELFTH CENTURY

Twelfth century English history was a turbulent period. It began with the accession of Henry I (1100 – 1135), the youngest son of William the Conqueror, whose claim was disputed by his elder brother, Robert of Normandy.  After various battles, Robert was captured in 1106 and held prisoner until his death in 1134. Henry resented the authority of the church and disputed with Archbishop Anselm over the issue of who should make ecclesiastical appointments.

Henry I’s death was followed by almost two decades of civil war, in a disputed claim to the throne between his nephew, Stephen (1135 – 1154), and his daughter, Matilda. Peace was only achieved in 1153, when Stephen accepted that Matilda's son should be his adopted heir. So it was that Henry II (1154 – 1189) succeeded to the throne, becoming the first Plantagenet monarch. His reign was dominated by his relationship with his Archbishop, Thomas Becket. Initially good friends, Becket refused to consent to the King's attempt to increase his powers over the Church.  After some years in exile, he returned to Canterbury only to be murdered by a group of knights who thought they were following the King's wishes. His death elevated Becket to the status of England’s most famous Christian martyr. His tomb became a focus for pilgrimage right up to the Reformation.   

The century ended with the reign of Richard I (The Lionheart 1189 - 1199) who spent only a few months of his ten-year reign in England. He spent several years in Palestine, playing a significant role in the Crusades, and was killed whilst defending his territories in France.

Despite the political turmoil of the era, the twelfth century was one of revival for the church. Monastic life increased in popularity, and several new orders were founded. One such, the Cistercians, was a "break away" group from the Benedictines, who sought to re-establish a new purity, following a strict observance of the rule of St. Benedict. Two of the most significant Cistercian monasteries were Rievaulx and Fountains Abbeys in Yorkshire.

AT A GLANCE                                 THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

The thirteenth century saw only three monarchs on the English throne, each of whom was obliged to yield a little more power to the barons:

• King John, (1199 – 1216), perhaps the most vilified monarch in our history, whose accession involved the murder of his nephew, Arthur. He failed to secure the French territories of his father, Henry I, and became unpopular with his barons owing to his excessive taxation to fund fruitless campaigns in France. His reign culminated in the famous Magna Carta (1215), which was the first significant attempt to reduce a sovereign's powers.

• Henry III (1216 – 1272), ascended to the throne at the age of nine and reigned for fifty-six years. He proved to be a weak king, not really suited to the role of a medieval monarch. He gained unpopularity by appointing foreign advisers (he married Eleanor, sister of the Queen of France and surrounded himself with her relatives). His reign is noted for the origins of the English parliament – more a gathering of nobles, but with the first ever representatives of the ‘shires’ being summoned to attend. During his reign, the barons, led by his brother-in-law, Simon de Montfort, sought to limit royal authority, defeating the king at the Battle of Lewes, before their advance was checked a year later at the Battle of Evesham, thanks to the leadership of the king’s son, Prince Edward, who proved to be the archetypical medieval leader.

• Edward I, (1272 – 1307) whose great ambition was the unification of Britain, earning him the eponymous title “Hammer of the Scots”. Ultimately, he failed in his mission to suppress Scotland but did secure the overlordship of Wales, building a string of fortified castles across the principality. He appreciated the importance of seeking parliament's approval for changing the law and raising money. The Model Parliament of 1295 established an important precedent, with its declaration that "what touches all should be approved by all"

The century was a great period of church building - Henry III, although not a warrior king, was very devout, and during his reign Westminster Abbey was rebuilt. Salisbury Cathedral is the outstanding example of Early English architecture which still survives largely unaltered, from this period.

The great Christian thinker of this period is Thomas Aquinas, who was writing against a background of a revival of interest in Greek, Aristotelian thought. Aristotle’s challenge to Christianity was his explanation of reality without any reference to God. He maintained that matter was eternal, and history was just an endless cycle of existence. Aquinas countered these arguments with eighteen large volumes, the most important being his Summa Theologiae and Summa Contra Gentiles.  He summarised Christian thought, based on both divine revelation and human reason. His work is still considered important and was used especially by the Roman Catholic Church at the time of the Counter-Reformation.

AT A GLANCE                                       THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Outbreaks of plague afflicted medieval England at frequent intervals, right up until the 17th Century, but none was more severe than the outbreak in the mid-14th Century. The Black Death (1348 – 49) devastated the whole of Europe, with about a third of the total population perishing, with disastrous effects for economic and social life. Many monasteries never fully recovered from losses inflicted at this time.

The century was one of turbulent politics, campaigns against Scotland giving way to campaigns against France, and the Hundred Years War.

Edward II (1307 – 1327) was heavily defeated by Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn in 1314, placing the whole of northern England in jeopardy. Sadly, Edward was easily influenced by his favourites and was not a popular king. In the early years of his reign, he ws infatuated with Piers Gaveston and was severely traumatised by his murder. In 1327, his weaknesses resulting in him being forced to renounce the crown in favour of his son and he was murdered.

Edward III’s long reign (1327 - 1377), did much to re-establish the authority of the monarchy after the disastrous reign of his father. He was a great warrior who laid claim to the throne of France, and so got England embroiled in the endless battles that later became known as the Hundred Year War. He was present at the great naval battle off the Flemish city of Sluis in which the French navy was decimated, and won a significant victory at Crecy in 1346, to be followed by his son, Edward the Black Prince’s equally stunning victory at Poitiers in 1356. However, his only lasting addition to his continental territories was the town of Calais. Away from the battlefield, Edward spent much time and money in restoring Windsor Castle and also established the Order of the Garter – which has become the highest order of knighthood and is still centred upon St George’s Chapel, Windsor. Perhaps his most lasting legacy to British history was the dynasty that he founded. The descendants of his seven sons and five daughters dominated English politics through the period of the Wars of the Roses, right up until the beginning of the Tudor dynasty.

Richard II (1377 – 1399) succeeded his grandfather due to the unfortunate death of his father, Edward the Black Prince in 1376. Although still only 14 years old, he defused The Peasants Revolt in 1381, led by Wat Tyler. The revolt was a protest against a poll tax of one shilling on every adult person, imposed to fund the wars in France, but it soon expanded to include demands for an end to serfdom, reform of the church and a purge of the king's Councillors. Despite the murder of Wat Tyler, the young king was able to calm the rebels by making a personal appearance and crying out, "Sirs would you kill me? I am your king, I am your captain and your leader". The rioters dispersed but promises made were later broken by others. Sadly, his reign deteriorated after this promising start until he was finally captured and deposed by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke in 1399. He was probably murdered in captivity.

The 14th century was the era of Geoffrey Chaucer, whose Canterbury Tales provide an entertaining picture of life in medieval England. Undoubtedly, the most significant figure for the advance of Christianity in this period was John Wycliffe. Through Wycliffe’s ministry, we see the first glimmers of unrest with the Catholic Church which would burst out in the Reformation, two centuries later.

Wycliffe offended the church by backing the right of the government to seize the property of corrupt clergy. His thinking prepared the way for the Reformation: he opposed the doctrine of transubstantiation – the view that the bread and wine at the Eucharist literally became the body and blood of Christ. He is best known for his translation of an English Bible, the first Bible in the English language (Middle English) since Saxon times, which at the time was illegal. He argued for the use of Scripture as the authoritative teaching of Christianity. His followers, known as Lollards, adopted many of his beliefs, questioning the authority of the Papacy, veneration of the saints, and advocating salvation solely by the grace of God. They were suppressed for advocating that the main task of the priest was to preach, and that the Bible should be available to everyone, in their own language.

AT A GLANCE                                             THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

The 15th Century saw the Wars of the Roses between the House of Lancaster and York, culminating in the victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth.  Seven monarchs span the century: Henry IV the usurper (1399 – 1413), who seized the crown from his cousin; Henry V (1413 – 1422), the rascally Prince Hal of Shakespeare’s plays, who overnight, on his elevation to the throne, was transformed into the epitome of medieval monarchy, reviving Edward III’s claims on France and becoming the champion of Agincourt in 1415. But he could not capitalize upon his victory. He died in 1422, leaving his infant son on the throne. Henry VI (1422 – 1461 & 1470 – 1471) had the distinction of becoming king at the age of nine months and being the only monarch to be crowned King of England and of France, but he was never cut out to be king. His interests were spiritual and academic. He established both Eton College and Kings College, Cambridge, but his reign led to anarchy. In 1455 war broke out between the rival houses of York and Lancaster. Edward of York claimed the crown in 1461, following the Battle of Townton near York, and although Henry fortunes of war saw him back on the throne for a year, he failed to hold his position and Edward IV (1461 – 1470 & 1471 – 1483) was ultimately dominant. Henry was murdered. Edward IV’s death precipitated the greatest mystery in English history. His young son, Edward V, along with his brother Richard, simply disappeared from sight in the Tower of London. Their uncle, Richard of York is widely credited with their murder, but nothing has ever been conclusively determined. What is certain is that Richard III (1483 – 1485) ruled for two years, before his defeat by Henry Tudor (Henry VII 1485 – 1509), who had a somewhat dubious claim to the throne – his mother being descended from John of Gaunt, a younger son of Edward III, via an illegitimate branch of the family, and his father being a child of Catherine of Valois, the widow of Henry V, via her second marriage. Henry defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, so ending the Wars of the Roses, and bringing stable government to the country. Richard was lost to history, until his grave was rediscovered in 2022 beneath a car park in Leicester. Sometimes truth really is stranger than fiction!  

This was a century of intrigue. The Hundred Years War came to an end. Despite the decisive victory at Agincourt in 1415, the French regained their self-respect, largely through the example of Joan of Arc. The battle of Castillon in 1453 terminated English attempts to colonise in Europe. Henry VI lost his French lands. Two kings were murdered. Lancastrian claims to the throne was effectively ended. The accession of Henry Tudor in 1485 heralded a new chapter in British history.

The 15th century also saw a new interest in learning. Twenty universities were founded across Europe. This new learning was centred in Italy and led to a "rebirth" of classical thought, in literature, philosophy and the arts. This “renaissance” marks the beginning of the modern world as we know it today. This new intellectual climate also provided a background upon which religious reform could later develop.

Perhaps the most significant advance of this century occurred at Mainz in Germany, where Gutenberg pioneered the first printing press, thus revolutionising communications. In 1456, the Bible became the first known complete book to be printed in the Christian world. Printing was to revolutionise the learning process. The written word became easily available to a wide public, so facilitating the dissemination of new ideas.  The advent of the printing press was one of the reasons for the rapid spread of the Reformation in the next century. The writings of the Reformers were quickly and cheaply reproduced.

The most significant Christian thinker of the century was Thomas a Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ, a spiritual devotion, designed to instruct the Christian on how to seek perfection by following Christ as his model. His life provides a fine example of spirituality.

AT A GLANCE                                            THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

Could anything century repeat the drama of the 15th century? Well, yes, the 16th century was even more dramatic, and it all began in a remote town in central Germany.

On October 31st, 1517, an obscure German monk in the town of Wittenberg nailed a list of 95 complaints onto the church door. He was protesting against the practice of selling indulgences – essentially written notes offering freedom from purgatory and a fast-track to heaven to the purchasers. This protest set in motion a chain of events which flamed across Europe, undermining the religious orthodoxy of a thousand years and resulting in the formation of the Protestant Church, during a period known as the Reformation.

Martin Luther had grown increasingly discontent with corruption within the Roman Catholic Church. The sale of indulgences, the proceeds of which were intended for the building of a new St Peter’s Church in Rome, was for him, the final straw. He didn't expect that his actions on that day would provoke such a major consequence, but events overtook him, and he soon found himself the leader of a "Protest" movement.

There is no doubt that the Roman Church needed reforming: centuries of intrigue and corruption, culminating in the notorious Borgia papacy (1492-1503), had left the Church in a wholly "unholy" condition.  Luther merely lit the touch paper. His rallying cry was for a simple, Biblical faith: salvation by grace, through faith.

"A Christian man is free from all things; he needs no works in order to be justified and saved but receives these gifts in abundance from his faith alone."

The Reformation spread rapidly through Germany and the Low Counties, bringing badly needed reform. In the late sixteenth century, the almost inevitable reaction from the Roman Catholic church followed: the Counter Reformation, the excesses of which are immortalised in such bodies as the Spanish Inquisition, which sought to eliminate heresy, but there is no doubt that the papacy and Roman Catholic Church did work hard to put itself in order, under the influence of groups such as the Jesuits and Ignatius Loyola.

England remained staunchly Catholic during Luther's initial revolt, earning Henry VIII (1509 – 1547) the title "Defender of the Faith", from the Pope. And in typically English style, the Reformation began here for entirely different reasons to the Continental Reformation – the king's desire for an heir. Henry wanted to re-marry in the hopes that his new union would provide him with a  son. When the pope refused to grant Henry's request for a marriage annulment, a series of Acts of Parliament were swiftly passed, which divested the Pope of his authority over the English church, established the monarch as Supreme Head of the Church, dissolved the monasteries, giving their lands to the Crown, even made provision for a Bible in English to be placed in every church, and gave the king the right to grant himself a divorce! How ironic that his new marriage produced yet another daughter!

It was the third of Henry's six wives who produced an heir, but the Henry himself remained a Catholic (albeit an English Catholic) throughout his life.  England only joined the Protestant Reformation in the reign of his son, Edward VI (1547 – 1553). Although only nine years old when he ascended to the throne, Edward was surrounded by Protestant advisers, and did encourage a genuine reformation of faith. The distinct “English” contribution to the Reformation was not its theology, which was the domain of the great Continental thinkers – Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli, but rather it was liturgy. Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer produced two Prayer Books in the reign of Edward VI, and had plans for a third revision before his career and life were abruptly terminated by the death of the king, and the accession of his sister, Mary Tudor. The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) remained the authoritative prayer book of the Church of England until the mid 20th century, with very little revision (despite Cranmer's own belief that it would suffice for only ten years). The BCP is the worshipping expression of Protestant faith, now in the English language.

Queen Mary’s brief reign (1553 – 1558) saw a total reversal of the Reformation. Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, Henry’s first wife, remained a staunch Catholic and took England back into the Roman Catholic fold, with a violent suppression of Protestantism, leading to the martyrdom of many of the leading Protestant reforming Bishops, including Cranmer. One of the martyrs, Bishop Latimer, uttered his final words, as he was being burned, “Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out.”

The reign of Elizabeth I (1558 – 1903) brought about a religious compromise. England reverted once again to Protestantism, with a revision of the BCP, but of a more inclusive kind than that under Edward VI. The Church of England, that we know and love today, began to take on its present form from this time. It was always a broad church.

The Elizabethan compromise did not suite everyone.  Many influential families continued to follow Catholic traditions and remained “secret” Catholics. Priests were "smuggled" into England, often having to avoid detection by hiding in priest holes. Many did not survive for very long. Nor were the more extreme reformers satisfied. They desired a fully Reformed church, more akin to Calvin's Swiss church. Their desire for purity in the church earned them the title of Puritan. The clash between the established Church and Puritanism was to reach a peak in the 17th century.

AT A GLANCE                                    THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY  

The seventeenth century is one of increasing tension in English history, between king and parliament. In essence, this was a political conflict, but it is often depicted as a religious conflict – between the High Church group and Puritanism. This was the century of the Stuart dynasty: James I (1603 – 1625), Charles I (1625 – 1649), The Commonwealth (1649 – 1660), Charles II (1660 – 1685), James II (1685 – 1688), and William and Mary, the only jointly crowned monarchs in English history: William III (1688 – 1702) and Mary II 1688 – 1694).

This was the century when the theory of the Divine Right of Kings was finally laid to rest. It began with the Gunpowder Plot in 1605: an abortive attempt to wipe out King, Lords, and Commons in one swift blow and restore Roman Catholic fortunes. At the other end of the theological spectrum, in 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers, a radical group of Puritans sailed to the New World on the Mayflower in an attempt to foucreate a society based on their Christian ideals. The High and Low Church factions in England became increasingly separate. The High Church was epitomized by Archbishop Laud (archbishop 1633 until his execution in 1645), who sought to restore something of pre-Reformation liturgical ritual. He encouraged the reintroduction of an East end altar (Cranmer always referred to the "Holy Table”) and elaborate clerical vestments; The Low Church was marked by the increasing influence of the Puritans, especially within the House of Commons, who reacted against the monarch’s claims of divine authority, which ultimately led to civil war.

The highlight of the early 17th century was undoubtedly the publication of the King James Bible (KJB) in 1611. Although not the first Bible to be printed in English, (it drew upon the earlier works of John Wycliffe and William Tyndale), the KJB became the standard English biblical text until the 20th century. Like the BCP, it is a book with great linguistic and poetic content which has been loved by generations of Christians.

The religious differences of this period became a symptom of political differences, as the first two Stuart kings found themselves increasingly at odds with Parliament. A bitter Civil War highlighted the tensions, but ten years of extreme Puritanism under Oliver Cromwell (who even banned the celebration of Christmas) was enough for the British people, who opted to restore the monarchy in 1660.

Charles II was a profligate character, with Catholic leanings, as was his brother, James II, who was finally deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.  James was replaced by his daughter and son-in-law, who became the first and only ‘joint’ monarchs in English history, William and Mary. Together, they ensured the Protestant succession, a peaceful end to the century, and a more constitutional role for the monarch, by agreeing to the Declaration of Rights, which obliged the monarch to meet Parliament every year.

AT A GLANCE                                      THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

Reason and revival are words which aptly summarise the 18th century.  Politically, it began and ended with European wars.  Queen Anne, a good friend of the church, was the final monarch of the Stuart dynasty. She established Queen Anne’s Bounty – a scheme to augment the income of poorer clergy, and so support the work of the church. But the House of Stuart did not completely end with the death of Queen Anne. James II, despite being deposed in 1688, never gave up hope of restoration to the throne. In 1689, he led an expedition into Ireland, with the aim of reclaiming his title, but was soundly defeated by William III in 1690 at the Battle of the Boyne. He retired to France. After his death in 1701, his Catholic son, James Stuart “The Old Pretender”, and later his grandson, Charles Stuart “The Young Pretender”, both led abortive campaigns to seize the throne, in the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1745 respectively. Thus, grew up the stories of ‘the king across the sea’, which were especially pertinent in Scotland. Charles Stuart marched south from Scotland as far as Derby before his support crumbled away. Turning north, he was soundly defeated in 1746 at the Battle of Culloden. This Jacobite threat finally came to an end in 1788, with the death of Charles Stuart.

Anne (1702 – 1714), therefore, was succeeded by a new dynasty, the Hanoverians. Neither George I (1714 – 1727) nor George II (1727 – 1760) had any particular regard for England, and chose to spend much time in Hanover, but George III (1760 – 1820) was popular during his younger years. During his reign, the American empire was lost, the first stirrings of the Industrial Revolution were felt, especially in the North and Midlands, and the dominant philosophy of the age was Rationalism which dated back to the earlier time of French philosopher, Rene Descartes, who first pronounced, " I think, therefore I am".

This was a challenging century for the Church of England. A century of seeking to find the middle ground between Catholicism and Puritanism, had left the Anglican Church lacklustre and dull. Preaching lacked punch, consisting mainly of moral essays; both George I and II were indifferent to Christianity and Sir Robert Walpole, Prime Minister for 21 years openly sought to put a stop to the progress of the gospel. The Age of Rationalism sought to interpret everything in terms of what the human mind perceives for itself. Descartes, and a later philosopher John Locke, believed in the existence of God, but their train of thinking was a logical precursor of scepticism, expressed by David Hume (1711-76).  He maintained that it was impossible to demonstrate the existence of the soul or self and cast doubt on the old proofs for the existence of God.

Against this background, the 18th century revival broke out. The names of Wesley and Whitfield are synonymous with this period, but revival can be traced to America, where the preaching of Jonathon Edwards in Northampton, Massachusetts brought about a new awaking of faith.

Revival in Britain first came to Wales through the preaching of Howell Harris.  He was followed by George Whitfield and the Wesley brothers – John and Charles in England. John spent his entire life preaching throughout the country, notching up 200,000 miles on horseback, preaching for the most part, in the open air, as church pulpits were closed to him. Charles is best remembered for his hymn-writing, still in regular demand today. (Imagine Christmas without ‘Hark the Herald! Angels sing’) This revival marks the beginnings of non-Conformity, though it must be remembered that the Wesley brothers remained Anglicans throughout their lives. Methodism only became a separate church after their deaths.  Alongside the preaching of these "great" names of the revival, the later 18th century also saw the beginnings of the Anglican Evangelical movement, whose members sought to achieve their aims within the existing framework of the Church. 

Cornwall was the cradle of Anglican Evangelicalism, under the leadership of Samuel Walker.  Other names include James Hervey in the West Country, William Romaine in London, Henry Venn and William Grimshaw in Yorkshire, and of course, William Wilberforce and former slave trader turned hymn-writer, and John Newton, who had a dramatic conversion experience, following a near-death experience on a sinking ship, which transformed him from dissolute slave trader to Anglican clergyman. He penned the immortal words: “Amazing grace! How sweet the sound that saved a wretch like me. I once was lost, but now am found, was blind, but now I see.”

The late 18th C also marked the beginnings of British missionary activity around the world which will become such an important part of British Christian activity for the next 200 years. It began with William Carey, often dubbed “The father of modern mission”. Carey was a Northamptonshire Baptist pastor and schoolmaster, who persuaded his church authorities to permit him to travel to India and who spent the rest of his life establishing a Christian mission in Serampore, in eastern India.

AT A GLANCE                                 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The 19th century marks the great days of Empire, an era when the sun never set on British territory. It is symbolised by the long reign of Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901). Three monarchs precede her reign. George III finally died in 1820, although his son had been Regent since 1811.  George IV (1820 – 1830) was no politician, being more concerned with fashion, and popularising the seaside. His best-known memorial is the Brighton Pavilion. William IV (1830 – 1837) was a conscientious and unpretentious monarch whose reign saw the Great Reform Bill which removed some of the worst excesses of corruption in Parliament, most notably the Rotten Boroughs, and the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, the introduction of the workhouse and the first state aid for education.

This century saw a number of growing movements within the church. There was a steady growth in the Evangelical wing of the church, which encouraged biblical understanding and personal faith in Christ. Arising from the Evangelical movement was great social concern, expressed by such figures as Wilberforce, who opposed slave trading, and Lord Shaftesbury who fought to improve factory conditions and regulate child labour. Elizabeth Fry, a famous Quaker, championed the cause of prison reform. Much good was done by the Evangelicals, but it was a strict and sombre movement, epitomised by Victorian strictness and firm moral values. Evangelical bishops began to establish a new style, adopting a simpler lifestyle than their predecessors.

Many of the overseas mission societies date from this era: CMS, USPG, CMJ, SPCK, China Inland Mission, Baptist Mission Society, to name but a few. It was as a missionary that David Livingstone first went to Africa, where he did so much to open up the interior of the Continent.

Alongside the Evangelical movement, and in parallel with it, arose the renewal of the Anglo-Catholic wing of the church. The ‘Oxford Movement’, so called because it originated in that city, began in the 1830s. The original aim was to make real the clause from the Creed, "I believe in one holy Catholic and apostolic church." Through a series of written tracts, they sought to deepen and improve the sacramental aspect of worship, and to deepen a personal sense of holiness.

The leaders of the Oxford Movement were John Keble and John Newman.  It flourished particularly amidst the growing industrial centres of Britain. A new class of urban labourers were drawn to work in the ‘dark Satanic mills’, as William Blake described them. Life was tough and many of the newly resettled labourers looked to the church for relief from their harsh surroundings. Enormous new churches were built in the growing suburbs which became centres of elaborate liturgy and ritual, providing a little bit of colour and relief from the grind of daily life. The Oxford Movement has done much to reinforce the importance of church order and ministry. It has served to provide a sense of reverence in the church, by encouraging regular communion, a pattern of disciplined prayer and reading, religious communities and retreats.

So these two traditions: “Evangelical” and “Catholic” learned to co-exist within the broad church that was the Church of England. But a new challenge also faced the church. The age of reason was reaching its apex. The church’s teachings were seriously challenged by advancing scientific, and geological advances. How could faith in God be reconciled with this new scientific understanding of the world, which appeared to challenge the long held biblical understanding? For the Victorian church, these were existential questions, and no event better illustrates this than the “Great Debate” of 1860, during which two of the principle participants, biologist Thomas Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce traded insults, with Wilberforce asking Huxley whether he was descended from apes on his mother’s side, or his father’s side.

Of course, Christians have come to terms with these advances in science. The “Liberal” understanding of faith is an umbrella term which encapsulates the importance of facing up to these questions with reason and experience. How can we continue to have faith when faced with scientific discoveries? How do we understand the Bible as being the “inspired word of God’, whilst also looking at questions of biblical authorship and authority? These questions don’t deny the reality of faith, they simply offer complementary ways of viewing the world. Science and theology answer different questions, and neither ‘denies’ the other.

The Church of England is a broad church. The terms “Evangelical”, “Anglo-Catholic” and “Liberal” are broadbrush titles, which of course require further examination, but they illustrate both the strengths and the tensions of living in a faith community. There has to be compromise and a bit of tolerance when opinions differ, but at the heart of the church is a profound sense of faith and worship. The church exists to worship God, and to be God’s instrument for service in the world.

AT A GLANCE                                 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY  

The twentieth century has been the age of secularisation and free expression.  It has been a difficult century for the church, with many people turning away from faith. And yet, despite falling congregations, the church continued to play a vital role in national and local life, with significant liturgical reform, the introduction of new Prayer Books, using 20th Century language, and a genuine attempt to relate to the changing social circumstances of the modern world. There has been a genuine sense of faith and commitment amongst many people.

The monarchy has become completely constitutional under the House of Windsor, (Edward VII 1901 – 1910, George V 1910 – 1936, Edward VIII 1936, George VI 1936 – 1952, Elizabeth II 1952 – 2022), but it continued to be respected, and Elizabeth II in particular has been very forthright in declaring her commitment as a Christian. The monarch remains Head of the Established Church, but with no executive powers in state or church. The House of Windsor has continued to serve the nation.

For many people in the 20th century, faith was severely tested by the reality of two world wars, and the huge capacity for evil which exists within the world. Since 1945, the desire for a better lifestyle and the pursuit of wealth has left little room for God in many people's lives.  There have been many movements which have denied the reality of God and with increasing secularisation, the church has had to become increasingly evangelistic in its approach. Humanism, secularism and communism have sought to provide a way of life which excludes the need for faith; Britain has become a multi-faith society, and we are coming to terms with living in close contact with Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and Sikhs; ecology and the use of the earth's resources pose yet another series of questions; but despite the growth of secularism, interest in spiritual values remained, even if it pushed the bounds of Christian orthodoxy. But despite these questions, as we enter the third millennium, Christianity is alive and well and beginning to show signs of new life and growth.

Increasingly, as the 20th century progressed, the church became less focussed upon particular leaders and has grown into more of a ‘grass roots’ movement. There have, of course, been ‘big name’ speakers – none more so than evangelist Billy Graham, but a growing awareness of ‘every member ministry’ has led to an emphasis upon the responsibility of all members to share the load and serve as God’s agents in their local community.

A dominant trend in the 20th century church has been a rediscovery of the Holy Spirit. Pentecostalism, and the charismatic movement, with its emphasis upon seeing God at work in the world through His people, has energised a desire to return to the biblical roots of the early church, and a re-discovery of the power of God to work within the world. This charismatic movement is having a profound effect across all the major denominations. It expresses itself in a new approach to worship, a plethora of new music, a desire to experience God at work in today's world, concern for the enduring message the Bible, and a call to use our God-given gifts in His service. 

AT A GLANCE                                 THE TWENTYFIRST CENTURY  

And so, the 21st century is already a quarter over. Amazingly, Elizabeth II, has served for another 22 years, becoming the long serving sovereign in British history and the first to celebrate a Platinum Jubilee. Charles III (2022 – present) continues to take his role as Head of the Church seriously.

The 21st century is a time of unprecedented change. If rationalism, reason and secularisation summarise the big questions facing the church in the last three centuries, then moralism may be the word that will summarise the 21st century. We live in a time of fast changing social norms and values. Social mobility, education, human longevity, have all made rapid advances. Living standards, and expectations for what we can have and enjoy, have grown inexorably. The status of women has been greatly improved. Multi-culturalism has expanded to an unprecedented level. The labour market continues to change. And social morality has changed beyond recognition. Less than 100 years ago, a King had to abdicate in order to marry a divorced woman. Today, we have a divorced king married to a divorcee. Many of the social conventions that, even fifty years ago were unthinkable, are now the norm. Same sex marriage is now legal. For the first time since records began, less than 50% of couples living at the same address are registered as married. We live in a world that seems to be dominated by sexuality, and in which individual rights take precedence over any sense of corporate responsibility.

So where does the church stand in the 21st century? The church still has a responsibility to bring the teachings of Christ into national life, and to bring individuals into the Kingdom of God. Undoubtedly, the secularisation of the 20th century continues to have an effect, in declining numbers of Christian adherents, and consequently less motivation for Christian values to be upheld within society.

So Christians face an enormous task in upholding the faith, and seeking to advance it. But there is hope. Our recently departed Queen, Elizabeth II, expressed it well in her Christmas broadcast in 2014:

"For me, the life of Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace, whose birth we celebrate today, is an inspiration and an anchor in my life. A role model of reconciliation and forgiveness, he stretched out his hands in love, acceptance and healing. Christ's example has taught me to seek to respect and value all people, of whatever faith or none." (Queen Elizabeth II Christmas message, 2014)

As the 21st century continues, the Christian faith is alive and well, and holds a message which continues to be relevant to individuals and to society: the love of God, the reality of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ, the promise of eternal life and the importance of spiritual values for today's world.

Christ’s command to his disciples at the end of St Matthew’s Gospel is as essential now as it always has been:

Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely, I am with you always, to the very end of the age.” (Matthew 28:19-20)

Thy hand O God, has guided

Thy flock form age to age;

The wondrous tale is written,

Full clear on every page;

Our fathers owned thy goodness,

And we their deeds record;

And both of this bear witness:

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

Thy heralds brought glad tidings

To greatest as to least;

They bade men rise, and hasten

To share the great King's feast;

And this was all their teaching,

In every deed and word,

To all alike proclaiming

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

When shadows thick were falling,

And all seemed sunk in night,

Thou, Lord didst send thy servants,

Thy chosen sons of light.

On them and on thy people

Thy plenteous grace was poured,

And this was still their message:

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

Through many a day of darkness,

Through many a scene of strife,

The faithful few fought bravely,

To guard the nation's life.

Their Gospel of redemption,

Sin pardoned, man restored,

Was all in this enfolded:

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

And we, shall we be faithless?

Shall hearts fail, hands hang down?

Shall we evade the conflict,

And cast away our crown?

Not so: in God's deep counsels

Some better thing is stored;

We will maintain, unflinching,

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

Thy mercy will not fail us,

Nor leave thy work undone;

With thy right hand to help us,

The victory shall be won;

And then, by men and angels,

thy name shall be adored,

And this shall be their anthem:

One Church, one faith, one Lord.

(E H Plumptre)